Scientists linked both skills to certain spots in the brain. The left orbitofrontal (OR-bit-oh-FRUNT-ul) cortex and the right hippocampus (Hip-oh-KAMP-us) were both bigger in the better smellers and better navigators. The orbitofrontal cortex has been tied to smelling. The hippocampus is known to be involved in both our sense of smell and in navigation. The researchers separately studied nine people who had damaged orbitofrontal cortices (KOR-tih-sees). Those people had more trouble with navigation and with identifying smells, the team found. The researchers shared their findings October 16 in Nature Communications. Dahmani did the work while at McGill University. That’s in Montreal, Canada.A sense of smell may have evolved to help people find their way around. This idea is called the olfactory (Oal-FAK-tor-ee) spatial hypothesis. More specific aspects of smell, such as how good people are at detecting faint whiffs, might also be tied to navigation, the researchers suggest.
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disorders strike 44 million adults a year at a cost of $148 billion. Advances in research could reduce these costs. For example, discovering how to delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease by five years could save $50 billion in annual health care costs. In the past two decades, neuroscience has made impressive progress in many of the field’s key areas. Now, more than ever, neuroscience is on the cusp of major breakthroughs. Recently, significant findings have been documented in the following areas. Genetics Disease genes have been identified that are key to several disorders, including the epilepsies, Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These discoveries have provided new insight into underlying disease mechanisms and are beginning to suggest new treatments. With the mapping of the human genome, neuroscientists have been able to make more rapid progress in identifying genes that either contribute to or directly cause human neurological disease. Mapping animal genomes has aided the search for genes that regulate and control many complex behaviors. Gene-environment Interactions Most major diseases have a genetic basis strongly influenced by the environment. For example, identical twins, who share the same DNA, have an increased risk of getting the same disease compared with nonidentical siblings. However, if one twin gets the disease, the probability the other will also be affected is between 30 percent and 60 percent, indicating that there are environmental factors at play as well. Environmental influences involve factors such as exposure to toxic substances, diet, level of physical activity, and stressful life events.
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Subsets of the complex numbers. A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure and also label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and so forth.[1] A notational symbol that represents a number is called a numeral.[2] In addition to their use in counting and measuring, numerals are often used for labels (as with telephone numbers), for ordering (as with serial numbers), and for codes (as with ISBNs). In common usage, number may refer to a symbol, a word, or a mathematical abstraction.
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Structure and Function The eye transmits visual stimuli to the brain for interpretation and, in doing so, functions as the organ of vision. The eyeball is located in the eye orbit, a round, bony hollow formed by several different bones of the skull. In the orbit, the eye is surrounded by a cushion of fat. The bony orbit and fat cushion protect the eyeball. To perform a thorough assessment of the eye, you need a good understanding of the external structures of the eye, the internal structures of the eye, the visual fields and pathways, and the visual reflexes. EXTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE EYE The eyelids (upper and lower) are two movable structures composed of skin and two types of muscle: striated and smooth. Their purpose is to protect the eye from foreign bodies and limit the amount of light entering the eye. In addition, they serve to distribute tears that lubricate the surface of the eye (Fig. 15-1). The upper eyelid is larger, more mobile, and contains tarsal plates made up of connective tissue. These plates contain the meibomian glands, which secrete an oily substance that lubricates the eyelid. The eyelids join at two points: the lateral (outer) canthus and medial (inner) canthus. The medial canthus contains the puncta, two small openings that allow drainage of tears into the lacrimal system, and the caruncle, a small, fleshy mass that contains sebaceous glands. The white space between open eyelids is called the palpebral fissure. When closed, the eyelids should touch. When open, the upper lid position should be between the upper margin of the iris and the upper margin of the pupil. The lower lid should rest on the lower border of the iris. No sclera should be seen above or below the limbus (the point where the sclera meets the cornea). Eyelashes are projections of stiff hair curving outward along the margins of the eyelids that filter dust and dirt from air entering the eye. The conjunctiva is a thin, transparent, continuous membrane that is divided into two portions: a palpebral and a bulbar portion. The palpebral conjunctiva lines the inside of the eyelids, and the bulbar conjunctiva covers most of the anterior eye, merging with the cornea at the limbus. The point at which the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae meet creates a folded recess that allows movement of the eyeball. This transparent membrane allows for inspection of underlying tissue and serves to protect the eye from foreign bodies. The lacrimal apparatus consists of glands and ducts that serve to lubricate the eye (Fig. 15-2). The lacrimal gland, located in the upper outer corner of the orbital cavity just above the eye, produces tears. As the lid blinks, tears wash across the eye then drain into the puncta, which are visible on the upper and lower lids at the inner canthus. Tears empty into the lacrimal canals and are then channeled into the nasolacrimal sac through the nasolacrimal duct. They drain into the nasal meatus. The extraocular muscles are the six muscles attached to the outer surface of each eyeball (Fig. 15-3). These muscles control six different directions of eye movement. Four rectus muscles are responsible for straight movement, and two oblique muscles are responsible for diagonal movement. Each muscle coordinates with a muscle in the opposite eye. This allows for parallel movement of the eyes and thus the binocular vision characteristic of humans. Innervation for these muscles is supplied by three cranial nerves: the oculomotor (III) trochlear (IV), and abducens (VI).
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Learning and Memory A major breakthrough in understanding how the brain accomplishes learning and memory began with the study of a person known by his initials, H.M. As a child, H.M. developed a severe, difficult-to-treat form of epilepsy. When traditional therapies didn’t help, H.M. underwent an experimental surgical treatment — the removal of the medial regions of his temporal lobes. The surgery worked in that it greatly alleviated the seizures, but it left H.M. with severe amnesia. He could remember recent events for only a few minutes and was unable to form explicit memories of new experiences. For example, after talking with him for a while and then leaving the room, upon returning, it would be clear that H.M. had no recollection of the exchange. Despite his inability to remember new information, H.M. remembered his childhood very well. From these unexpected observations, researchers concluded that the parts of H.M.’s medial temporal lobe that were removed, including the hippocampus and parahippocampal region, played critical roles in converting short-term memories of experiences to long-term, permanent ones. Because H.M. retained some memories of events that occurred long before his surgery, it appeared that the medial temporal region was not the site of permanent storage but instead played a role in the organization and permanent storage of memories elsewhere in the brain. Since that time, scientists have learned that the medial temporal region is closely connected to widespread areas of the cerebral cortex, including the regions responsible for thinking and language. Whereas the medial temporal region is important for forming,
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An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system can be thought of as the transport system of the body. This system has three main components: the heart, the blood vessel and the blood itself. The heart is the system’s pump and the blood vessels are like the delivery routes. Blood can be thought of as a fluid which contains the oxygen and nutrients the body needs and carries the wastes which need to be removed. The following information describes the structure and function of the heart and the cardiovascular system as a whole. Information on re-publishing of our images Structure and Function of the Heart Function and Location of the Heart The heart’s job is to pump blood around the body. The heart is located in between the two lungs. It lies left of the middle of the chest. Structure of the Heart The heart is a muscle about the size of a fist, and is roughly cone-shaped. It is about 12cm long, 9cm across the broadest point and about 6cm thick. The pericardium is a fibrous covering which wraps around the whole heart. It holds the heart in place but allows it to move as it beats. The wall of the heart itself is made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle. Chambers of the Heart The heart has two sides, the right side and the left side. The heart has four chambers. The left and right side each have two chambers, a top chamber and a bottom chamber. The two top chambers are known as the left and right atria (singular: atrium). The atria receive blood from different sources. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs and the right atrium receives blood from the rest of the body. The bottom two chambers are known as the left and right ventricles. The ventricles pump blood out to different parts of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs while the left ventricle pumps out blood to the rest of the body. The ventricles have much thicker walls than the atria which allows them to perform more work by pumping out blood to the whole body. Blood Vessels Blood Vessel are tubes which carry blood. Veins are blood vessels which carry blood from the body back to the heart. Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood from the heart to the body. There are also microscopic blood vessels which connect arteries and veins together called capillaries. There are a few main blood vessels which connect to different chambers of the heart. The aorta is the largest artery in our body. The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta which then carries it to the rest of the body through smaller arteries. The pulmonary trunk is the large artery which the right ventricle pumps into. It splits into pulmonary arteries which take the blood to the lungs. The pulmonary veins take blood from the lungs to the left atrium. All the other veins in our body drain into the inferior vena cava (IVC) or the superior vena cava (SVC). These two large veins then take the blood from the rest of the body into the right atrium. Valves Valves are fibrous flaps of tissue found between the heart chambers and in the blood vessels. They are rather like gates which prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction. They are found in a number of places. Valves between the atria and ventricles are known as the right and left atrioventricular valves, otherwise known as the tricuspid and mitral valves respectively. Valves between the ventricles and the great arteries are known as the semilunar valves. The aortic valve is found at the base of the aorta, while the pulmonary valve is found the base of the pulmonary trunk. There are also many valves found in veins throughout the body. However, there are no valves found in any of the other arteries besides the aorta and pulmonary trunk. What is the Cardiovascular System? The cardiovascular system refers to the heart, blood vessels and the blood. Blood contains oxygen and other nutrients which your body needs to survive. The body takes these essential nutrients from the blood. At the same time, the body dumps waste products like carbon dioxide, back into the blood, so they can be removed. The main function of the cardiovascular system is therefore to maintain blood flow to all parts of the body, to allow it to survive. Veins deliver used blood from the body back to the heart. Blood in the veins is low in oxygen (as it has been taken out by the body) and high in carbon dioxide (as the body has unloaded it back into the blood). All the veins drain into the superior and inferior vena cava which then drain into the right atrium. The right atrium pumps blood into the right ventricle. Then the right ventricle pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk, through the pulmonary arteries and into the lungs. In the lungs the blood picks up oxygen that we breathe in and gets rid of carbon dioxide, which we breathe out. The blood is becomes rich in oxygen which the body can use. From the lungs, blood drains into the left atrium and is then pumped into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps this oxygen-rich blood out into the aorta which then distributes it to the rest of the body through other arteries. The main arteries which branch off the aorta and take blood to specific parts of the body are: Carotid arteries, which take blood to the neck and head Coronary arteries, which provide blood supply to the heart itself Hepatic artery, which takes blood to the liver with branches going to the stomach Mesenteric artery, which takes blood to the intestines Renal arteries, which takes blood to the kidneys Femoral arteries, which take blood to the legs The body is then able to use the oxygen in the blood to carry out its normal functions. This blood will again return back to the heart through the veins and the cycle continues. Information on re-publishing of our images What is the Cardiac Cycle? The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs in one complete beat of the heart. The pumping phase of the cycle, also known as systole, occurs when heart muscle contracts. The filling phase, which is known as diastole, occurs when heart muscle relaxes. At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, both atria and ventricles are in diastole. During this time, all the chambers of the heart are relaxed and receive blood. The atrioventricular valves are open. Atrial systole follows this phase. During atrial systole, the left and right atria contract at the same time and push blood into the left and right ventricles, respectively. The next phase is ventricular systole. During ventricular systole, the left and right ventricles contract at the same time and pump blood into the aorta and pulmonary trunk, respectively. In ventricular systole, the atria are relaxed and receive blood. The atrioventricular valves close immediately after ventricular systole begins to stop blood going back into the atria. However, the semilunar valves are open during this phase to allow the blood to flow into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. Following this phase, the ventricles relax that is ventricular diastole occurs. The semilunar valves close to stop the blood from flowing back into the ventricles from the aorta and pulmonary trunk. The atria and ventricles once again are in diastole together and the cycle begins again. Components of the Heartbeat The adult heart beats around 70 to 80 times a minute at rest. When you listen to your heart with a stethoscope you can hear your heart beat. The sound is usually described as “lubb-dupp”. The “lubb” also known as the first heart sound, is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves. The “dupp” sound is due to the closure of the semilunar valves when the ventricles relax (at the beginning of ventricular diastole). Abnormal heart sounds are known as murmurs. Murmurs may indicate a problem with the heart valves, but many types of murmur are no cause for concern. (For more information see: (see Valvular Heart Disease) The Electrocardiogram The heart has an inbuilt rhythm of contraction and relaxation. A small group of heart muscle cells called the pacemaker help achieve this. The pacemaker generates an electrical impulse which spreads over the atria, making them contract. This impulse then spreads to the ventricles, causing them to contract. The electrical changes that spread through the heart can be detected at the surface of the body by an instrument called the electrocardiograph. Electrodes are placed in a number of positions over the chest and the electrical changes are recorded on moving graph paper as an electrocardiogram (ECG). Effects of Aging on the Heart in Men and Women As a part of the normal aging process a number of changes occur to the cardiovascular system. Our heart rate slows down because the time between heartbeats increases as we age. This is one of the main reasons why the heart is unable to pump out more blood during exercise when we become old. The amount of blood the heart pumps each minute can change as we age. It decreases slightly in older women. However, it does not change in healthy older men who have no heart disease. The reason for the difference between the sexes is not fully understood. As we age, our blood pressure falls much more on standing from the sitting position compared to when we are younger. This phenomenon is known as postural hypotension. This explains why elderly people are more likely to feel dizzy or to fall when they stand up quickly from a resting position.
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